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Fatty Acid Profile of Grain Fed Beef

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  • Journal List
  • Nutr J
  • v.9; 2010
  • PMC2846864

A review of fatty acrid profiles and antioxidant content in grass-fed and grain-fed beef

Cynthia A Daley

aneHigher of Agriculture, California Land University, Chico, CA, USA

Amber Abbott

aneCollege of Agriculture, California Country University, Chico, CA, USA

Patrick S Doyle

1College of Agriculture, California State University, Chico, CA, USA

Glenn A Nader

2University of California Cooperative Extension Service, Davis, CA, Us

Stephanie Larson

2University of California Cooperative Extension Service, Davis, CA, USA

Received 2009 Jul 29; Accepted 2010 Mar 10.

Abstract

Growing consumer interest in grass-fed beef products has raised a number of questions with regard to the perceived differences in nutritional quality between grass-fed and grain-fed cattle. Research spanning three decades suggests that grass-based diets tin significantly improve the fatty acrid (FA) composition and antioxidant content of beef, admitting with variable impacts on overall palatability. Grass-based diets have been shown to heighten total conjugated linoleic acrid (CLA) (C18:two) isomers, trans vaccenic acid (TVA) (C18:one t11), a precursor to CLA, and omega-three (due north-3) FAs on a g/one thousand fat ground. While the overall concentration of total SFAs is not dissimilar between feeding regimens, grass-finished beef tends toward a higher proportion of cholesterol neutral stearic FA (C18:0), and less cholesterol-elevating SFAs such every bit myristic (C14:0) and palmitic (C16:0) FAs. Several studies suggest that grass-based diets elevate precursors for Vitamin A and Eastward, equally well every bit cancer fighting antioxidants such as glutathione (GT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity as compared to grain-fed contemporaries. Fat conscious consumers will also adopt the overall lower fatty content of a grass-fed beef product. However, consumers should be aware that the differences in FA content will also give grass-fed beef a distinct grass flavour and unique cooking qualities that should exist considered when making the transition from grain-fed beef. In addition, the fat from grass-finished beef may have a xanthous advent from the elevated carotenoid content (precursor to Vitamin A). It is also noted that grain-fed beef consumers may achieve similar intakes of both n-iii and CLA through the consumption of higher fat grain-fed portions.

Review Contents

1. Introduction

ii. Fatty acid contour in grass-fed beefiness

three. Affect of grass-finishing on omega-iii fatty acids

four. Impact of grass-finishing on conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and trans-vaccenic acid (TVA)

v. Impact of grass-finishing on β-carotenes/carotenoids

half-dozen. Impact of grass-finishing on α-tocopherol

7. Touch of grass-finishing on GT & SOD activity

8. Impact of grass-finishing on flavor and palatability

ix. Conclusion

10. References

Introduction

At that place is considerable support among the nutritional communities for the diet-eye (lipid) hypothesis, the idea that an imbalance of dietary cholesterol and fats are the chief cause of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular affliction (CVD) [i]. Health professionals globe-wide recommend a reduction in the overall consumption of SFAs, trans-fatty acids (TAs) and cholesterol, while emphasizing the demand to increment intake of due north-three polyunsaturated fats [1,2]. Such broad sweeping nutritional recommendations with regard to fat consumption are largely due to epidemiologic studies showing potent positive correlations betwixt intake of SFA and the incidence of CVD, a status believed to result from the concomitant rise in serum low-density-lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol equally SFA intake increases [iii,four]. For example, it is generally accepted that for every i% increase in free energy from SFA, LDL cholesterol levels reportedly increase by 1.3 to one.7 mg/dL (0.034 to 0.044 mmol/L) [v-seven].

Broad promotion of this correlative data spurred an anti-SFA entrada that reduced consumption of dietary fats, including about animal proteins such as meat, dairy products and eggs over the concluding three decades [8], indicted on their relatively high SFA and cholesterol content. However, more than recent lipid research would propose that not all SFAs have the same impact on serum cholesterol. For example, lauric acid (C12:0) and myristic acid (C14:0), have a greater total cholesterol raising effect than palmitic acrid (C16:0), whereas stearic acid (C18:0) has a neutral effect on the concentration of total serum cholesterol, including no apparent impact on either LDL or HDL. Lauric acid increases full serum cholesterol, although it besides decreases the ratio of total cholesterol:HDL because of a preferential increase in HDL cholesterol [5,7,9]. Thus, the individual fat acrid profiles tend to be more instructive than broad lipid classifications with respect to subsequent impacts on serum cholesterol, and should therefore be considered when making dietary recommendations for the prevention of CVD.

Clearly the lipid hypothesis has had broad sweeping impacts; non simply on the way we eat, simply also on the way food is produced on-farm. Indeed, changes in beast breeding and genetics have resulted in an overall bacteria beef production[10]. Preliminary examination of diets containing today'due south leaner beef has shown a reduction in serum cholesterol, provided that beef consumption is limited to a three ounce portion devoid of all external fat [xi]. O'Dea'south work was the first of several studies to evidence today's bacteria beef products can reduce plasma LDL concentrations in both normal and hyper-cholesterolemic subjects, theoretically reducing risk of CVD [12-15].

Beyond changes in genetics, some producers have too altered their feeding practices whereby reducing or eliminating grain from the ruminant nutrition, producing a product referred to as "grass-fed" or "grass-finished". Historically, most of the beefiness produced until the 1940'south was from cattle finished on grass. During the 1950's, considerable research was done to improve the efficiency of beef production, giving birth to the feedlot industry where high free energy grains are fed to cattle equally means to decrease days on feed and ameliorate marbling (intramuscular fat: Imf). In addition, U.Southward. consumers have grown accustomed to the taste of grain-fed beef, mostly preferring the flavor and overall palatability afforded by the higher energy grain ration[sixteen]. However, changes in consumer need, coupled with new inquiry on the consequence of feed on nutrient content, accept a number of producers returning to the pastoral approach to beef production despite the inherent inefficiencies.

Research spanning three decades suggests that grass-only diets tin can significantly alter the fatty acid limerick and improve the overall antioxidant content of beef. It is the intent of this review, to synthesize and summarize the information currently available to substantiate an enhanced nutrient claim for grass-fed beef products too as to discuss the effects these specific nutrients have on human health.

Review of fatty acid profiles in grass-fed beefiness

Red meat, regardless of feeding regimen, is nutrient dense and regarded as an important source of essential amino acids, vitamins A, B6, B12, D, E, and minerals, including atomic number 26, zinc and selenium [17,18]. Along with these important nutrients, meat consumers also ingest a number of fats which are an important source of energy and facilitate the absorption of fatty-soluble vitamins including A, D, E and K. Co-ordinate to the ADA, animal fats contribute approximately 60% of the SFA in the American diet, well-nigh of which are palmitic acid (C16:0) and stearic acid (C18:0). Stearic acid has been shown to have no internet impact on serum cholesterol concentrations in humans[17,19]. In addition, 30% of the FA content in conventionally produced beef is composed of oleic acrid (C18:i) [xx], a monounsaturated FA (MUFA) that elicits a cholesterol-lowering effect amidst other healthful attributes including a reduced risk of stroke and a significant decrease in both systolic and diastolic blood pressure level in susceptible populations [21].

Be that as information technology may, changes in finishing diets of conventional cattle tin can alter the lipid profile in such a way as to improve upon this nutritional package. Although in that location are genetic, age related and gender differences amongst the diverse meat producing species with respect to lipid profiles and ratios, the outcome of animal nutrition is quite significant [22]. Regardless of the genetic makeup, gender, age, species or geographic location, direct contrasts between grass and grain rations consistently demonstrate significant differences in the overall fatty acid profile and antioxidant content institute in the lipid depots and torso tissues [22-24].

Table ​ 1 summarizes the saturated fatty acid analysis for a number of studies whose objectives were to contrast the lipid profiles of cattle fed either a grain or grass diets [25-31]. This table is limited to those studies utilizing the longissimus dorsi (loin eye), thereby standardizing the contrasts to similar cuts within the carcass and limits the comparisons to cattle between xx and 30 months of age. Unfortunately, not all studies report data in similar units of measure (i.e., grand/g of fatty acid), and then directly comparisons between studies are not possible.

Table 1

Comparison of mean saturated fatty acid composition (expressed as mg/g of fatty acid or as a % of total lipid) between grass-fed and grain-fed cattle.

Fatty Acid
Writer, publication year, brood, handling C12:0 lauric C14:0 myristic C16:0 palmitic C18:0 stearic C20:0 arachidic Total SFA (units as specified) Full lipid (units every bit specified)
Alfaia, et al., 2009, Crossbred steers thou/100 k lipid
 Grass 0.05 1.24* 18.42* 17.54* 0.25* 38.76 9.76* mg/g muscle
 Grain 0.06 i.84* 20.79* xiv.96* 0.19* 39.27 13.03* mg/g muscle
Leheska, et al., 2008, Mixed cattle g/100 g lipid
 Grass 0.05 2.84* 26.9 17.0* 0.13* 48.8* 2.8* % of muscle
 Grain 0.07 3.45* 26.3 xiii.two* 0.08* 45.ane* 4.4* % of musculus
Garcia et al., 2008, Angus X-bred steers % of total FA
 Grass na 2.xix 23.one thirteen.one* na 38.4* 2.86* %Imf
 Grain na 2.44 22.1 10.8* na 35.3* iii.85* %International monetary fund
Ponnampalam, et al., 2006, Angus steers mg/100 g muscle tissue
 Grass na 56.nine* 508* 272.8 na 900* two.12%* % of musculus
 Grain na 103.7* 899* 463.3 na 1568* three.61%* % of musculus
Nuernberg, et al., 2005, Simmental bulls % of total intramuscular fat reported as LSM
 Grass 0.04 1.82 22.56* 17.64* na 43.91 i.51* % of musculus
 Grain 0.05 ane.96 24.26* sixteen.80* na 44.49 2.61* % of musculus
Descalzo, et al., 2005 Crossbred Steers % of total FA
 Grass na 2.ii 22.0 xix.1 na 42.viii ii.7* %International monetary fund
 Grain na two.0 25.0 18.ii na 45.5 4.vii* %IMF
Realini, et al., 2004, Hereford steers % fatty acid inside intramuscular fat
 Grass na 1.64* 21.61* 17.74* na 49.08 1.68* % of muscle
 Grain na two.17* 24.26* 15.77* na 47.62 3.18* % of muscle

*Indicates a significant difference (at least P < 0.05) between feeding regimens was reported inside each corresponding study. "na" indicates that the value was non reported in the original study.

Table ​ ane reports that grass finished cattle are typically lower in total fat as compared to grain-fed contemporaries. Interestingly, there is no consistent difference in total SFA content betwixt these two feeding regimens. Those SFA's considered to be more than detrimental to serum cholesterol levels, i.due east., myristic (C14:0) and palmitic (C16:0), were college in grain-fed beef as compared to grass-fed contemporaries in 60% of the studies reviewed. Grass finished meat contains elevated concentrations of stearic acid (C18:0), the only saturated fat acrid with a cyberspace neutral impact on serum cholesterol. Thus, grass finished beef tends to produce a more favorable SFA composition although piddling is known of how grass-finished beef would ultimately impact serum cholesterol levels in hyper-cholesterolemic patients equally compared to a grain-fed beefiness.

Like SFA intake, dietary cholesterol consumption has likewise go an of import issue to consumers. Interestingly, beef's cholesterol content is like to other meats (beef 73; pork 79; lamb 85; chicken 76; and turkey 83 mg/100 one thousand) [32], and tin can therefore be used interchangeably with white meats to reduce serum cholesterol levels in hyper-cholesterolemic individuals[11,33]. Studies have shown that breed, nutrition and sex do not affect the cholesterol concentration of bovine skeletal musculus, rather cholesterol content is highly correlated to IMF concentrations[34]. As International monetary fund levels rise, and then goes cholesterol concentrations per gram of tissue [35]. Considering pasture raised beef is lower in overall fat [24-27,xxx], specially with respect to marbling or International monetary fund [26,36], it would seem to follow that grass-finished beefiness would be lower in overall cholesterol content although the data is very limited. Garcia et al (2008) written report forty.3 and 45.8 grams of cholesterol/100 grams of tissue in pastured and grain-fed steers, respectively (P < 0.001) [24].

Interestingly, grain-fed beefiness consistently produces higher concentrations of MUFAs as compared to grass-fed beef, which include FAs such as oleic acid (C18:one cis-9), the primary MUFA in beef. A number of epidemiological studies comparison illness rates in different countries have suggested an inverse clan between MUFA intake and bloodshed rates to CVD [3,21]. Even so, grass-fed beefiness provides a higher concentration of TVA (C18:1 txi), an important MUFA for de novo synthesis of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA: C18:2 c-nine, t-11), a potent anti-carcinogen that is synthesized inside the body tissues [37]. Specific information relative to the wellness benefits of CLA and its biochemistry will be detailed subsequently.

The important polyunsaturated fat acids (PUFAs) in conventional beef are linoleic acid (C18:2), blastoff-linolenic acid (C18:3), described every bit the essential FAs, and the long-concatenation fatty acids including arachidonic acid (C20:4), eicosapentaenoic acid (C20:5), docosanpetaenoic acrid (C22:5) and docosahexaenoic acid (C22:6) [38]. The significance of nutrition on fatty acid limerick is clearly demonstrated when profiles are examined by omega six (n-6) and omega 3 (northward-three) families. Table ​ 2 shows no significant change to the overall concentration of n-6 FAs between feeding regimens, although grass-fed beefiness consistently shows a college concentrations of due north-3 FAs as compared to grain-fed contemporaries, creating a more favorable n-vi:n-iii ratio. There are a number of studies that report positive effects of improved n-3 intake on CVD and other health related issues discussed in more than item in the next section.

Table 2

Comparison of mean polyunsatured fat acid composition (expressed as mg/thousand of fatty acid or as a % of total lipid) between grass-fed and grain-fed cattle.

Fatty Acid
Author, publication yr, brood, treatment C18:1 t11 Vaccenic Acid C18:2 n-6 Linoleic Total CLA C18:iii due north-3 Linolenic C20:5n-3 EPA C22:5n-iii DPA C22:6n-3 DHA Total PUFA Total MUFA Full due north-6 Total n-3 n-6/northward-3 ratio
Alfaia, et al., 2009, Crossbred steers thou/100 thousand lipid
 Grass 1.35 12.55 v.fourteen* v.53* 2.13* ii.56* 0.twenty* 28.99* 24.69* 17.97* 10.41* 1.77*
 Grain 0.92 11.95 2.65* 0.48* 0.47* 0.91* 0.11* 19.06* 34.99* 17.08 one.97* 8.99*
Leheska, et al., 2008, Mixed cattle g/100 g lipid
 Grass 2.95* 2.01 0.85* 0.71* 0.31 0.24* na three.41 42.five* 2.30 ane.07* 2.78*
 Grain 0.51* 2.38 0.48* 0.13* 0.19 0.06* na 2.77 46.two* 2.58 0.19* 13.6*
Garcia, et al., 2008, Angus steers % of total FAs
 Grass iii.22* 3.41 0.72* 1.30* 0.52* 0.70* 0.43* 7.95 37.7* five.00* ii.95* ane.72*
 Grain 2.25* 3.93 0.58* 0.74* 0.12* 0.xxx* 0.14* nine.31 40.viii* 8.05* 0.86* 10.38*
Ponnampalam, et al., 2006, Angus steers mg/100 g musculus tissue
 Grass na 108.8* 14.3 32.iv* 24.five* 36.5* four.2 na 930* 191.6 97.6* 1.96*
 Grain na 167.4* 16.1 xiv.ix* 13.1* 31.vi* three.vii na 1729* 253.8 63.3* three.57*
Nuernberg, et al., 2005, Simmental bulls % of total fatty acids
 Grass na 6.56 0.87* ii.22* 0.94* 1.32* 0.17* xiv.29* 56.09 nine.fourscore 4.70* 2.04*
 Grain na 5.22 0.72* 0.46* 0.08* 0.29* 0.05* 9.07* 55.51 7.73 0.ninety* 8.34*
Descalzo, et al., 2005, Crossbred steers % of total FAs
 Grass iv.2* 5.4 na ane.iv* tr 0.6 tr x.31* 34.17* 7.4 2.0 3.72*
 Grain 2.viii* 4.7 na 0.7* tr 0.4 tr 7.29* 37.83* 6.3 1.ane 5.73*
Realini, et al., 2004, Hereford steers % fatty acrid within intramuscular fat
 Grass na three.29* 0.53* 1.34* 0.69* 1.04* 0.09 9.96* 40.96* na na 1.44*
 Grain na 2.84* 0.25* 0.35* 0.30* 0.56* 0.09 6.02* 46.36* na na three.00*

* Indicates a significant divergence (at least P < 0.05) between feeding regimens inside each corresponding study reported. "na" indicates that the value was not reported in the original study. "tr" indicates trace amounts detected.

Review of Omega-three: Omega-6 fat acid content in grass-fed beef

There are 2 essential fatty acids (EFAs) in human nutrition: α-linolenic acrid (αLA), an omega-three fatty acrid; and linoleic acid (LA), an omega-half dozen fatty acid. The man body cannot synthesize essential fat acids, all the same they are critical to human health; for this reason, EFAs must be obtained from food. Both αLA and LA are polyunsaturated and serve as precursors of other important compounds. For instance, αLA is the forerunner for the omega-3 pathway. Likewise, LA is the parent fat acid in the omega-six pathway. Omega-3 (northward-iii) and omega-half-dozen (north-six) fatty acids are 2 separate distinct families, yet they are synthesized by some of the same enzymes; specifically, delta-5-desaturase and delta-half dozen-desaturase. Excess of one family of FAs can interfere with the metabolism of the other, reducing its incorporation into tissue lipids and altering their overall biological effects [39]. Figure ​ ane depicts a schematic of northward-6 and northward-3 metabolism and elongation inside the body [xl].

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc. Object name is 1475-2891-9-10-1.jpg

Linoleic (C18:2n-6) and α-Linolenic (C18:3n-iii) Acrid metabolism and elongation. (Adapted from Simopoulos et al., 1991)

A healthy diet should consist of roughly i to four times more omega-6 fatty acids than omega-3 fat acids. The typical American diet tends to incorporate 11 to 30 times more than omega -half-dozen fatty acids than omega -three, a phenomenon that has been hypothesized as a significant gene in the ascension charge per unit of inflammatory disorders in the Usa[40]. Table ​ 2 shows significant differences in northward-half-dozen:northward-3 ratios between grass-fed and grain-fed beef, with and overall average of 1.53 and seven.65 for grass-fed and grain-fed, respectively, for all studies reported in this review.

The major types of omega-3 fat acids used by the body include: α-linolenic acrid (C18:3n-3, αLA), eicosapentaenoic acid (C20:5n-3, EPA), docosapentaenoic acid (C22:5n-3, DPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (C22:6n-3, DHA). One time eaten, the body converts αLA to EPA, DPA and DHA, admitting at depression efficiency. Studies generally hold that whole trunk conversion of αLA to DHA is below 5% in humans, the majority of these long-chain FAs are consumed in the diet [41].

The omega-3 fatty acids were first discovered in the early on 1970'due south when Danish physicians observed that Greenland Eskimos had an uncommonly depression incidence of eye disease and arthritis despite the fact that they consumed a diet high in fat. These early studies established fish equally a rich source of northward-3 fatty acids. More than recent research has established that EPA and DHA play a crucial office in the prevention of atherosclerosis, heart set on, low and cancer [40,42]. In addition, omega-3 consumption reduced the inflammation caused by rheumatoid arthritis [43,44].

The human encephalon has a high requirement for DHA; low DHA levels take been linked to low brain serotonin levels, which are connected to an increased tendency for depression and suicide. Several studies have established a correlation between low levels of omega -3 fatty acids and depression. High consumption of omega-three FAs is typically associated with a lower incidence of low, a decreased prevalence of historic period-related memory loss and a lower chance of developing Alzheimer's illness [45-51].

The National Institutes of Health has published recommended daily intakes of FAs; specific recommendations include 650 mg of EPA and DHA, 2.22 thou/twenty-four hour period of αLA and 4.44 g/day of LA. Yet, the Establish of Medicine has recommended DRI (dietary reference intake) for LA (omega-6) at 12 to 17 g and αLA (omega-3) at ane.1 to one.6 g for adult women and men, respectively. Although seafood is the major dietary source of n-3 fatty acids, a recent fatty acrid intake survey indicated that scarlet meat also serves as a significant source of n-3 fatty acids for some populations [52].

Sinclair and co-workers were the offset to bear witness that beef consumption increased serum concentrations of a number of due north-3 fatty acids including, EPA, DPA and DHA in humans [twoscore]. Likewise, there are a number of studies that have been conducted with livestock which written report similar findings, i.e., animals that swallow rations high in precursor lipids produce a meat production college in the essential fatty acids [53,54]. For case, cattle fed primarily grass significantly increased the omega-iii content of the meat and also produced a more favorable omega-half-dozen to omega-iii ratio than grain-fed beef [46,55-57].

Table ​ 2 shows the issue of ration on polyunsaturated fatty acid composition from a number of recent studies that contrast grass-based rations to conventional grain feeding regimens [24-28,thirty,31]. Grass-based diets resulted in significantly higher levels of omega-three inside the lipid fraction of the meat, while omega-6 levels were left unchanged. In fact, as the concentration of grain is increased in the grass-based nutrition, the concentration of north-3 FAs decreases in a linear way. Grass-finished beef consistently produces a higher concentration of n-three FAs (without effecting n-vi FA content), resulting in a more favorable n-half-dozen:n-3 ratio.

The amount of full lipid (fat) institute in a serving of meat is highly dependent upon the feeding regimen as demonstrated in Tables ​ 1 and ​ 2. Fat volition too vary by cut, as not all locations of the carcass volition deposit fat to the same degree. Genetics also play a office in lipid metabolism creating significant breed effects. Even then, the effect of feeding regimen is a very powerful determinant of fatty acid composition.

Review of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and trans vaccenic acrid (TVA) in grass-fed beef

Conjugated linoleic acids make upward a group of polyunsaturated FAs found in meat and milk from ruminant animals and be as a general mixture of conjugated isomers of LA. Of the many isomers identified, the cis-ix, trans-eleven CLA isomer (also referred to as rumenic acrid or RA) accounts for up to 80-90% of the full CLA in ruminant products [58]. Naturally occurring CLAs originate from 2 sources: bacterial isomerization and/or biohydrogenation of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in the rumen and the desaturation of trans-fatty acids in the adipose tissue and mammary gland [59,60].

Microbial biohydrogenation of LA and αLA past an anaerobic rumen bacterium Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens is highly dependent on rumen pH [61]. Grain consumption decreases rumen pH, reducing B. fibrisolven action, conversely grass-based diets provide for a more than favorable rumen environment for subsequent bacterial synthesis [62]. Rumen pH may help to explicate the apparent differences in CLA content between grain and grass-finished meat products (see Table ​ two). De novo synthesis of CLA from 11t-C18:ane TVA has been documented in rodents, dairy cows and humans. Studies suggest a linear increase in CLA synthesis equally the TVA content of the diet increased in homo subjects [63]. The rate of conversion of TVA to CLA has been estimated to range from 5 to 12% in rodents to 19 to 30% in humans[64]. Truthful dietary intake of CLA should therefore consider native ninec11t-C18:2 (actual CLA) as well as the 11t-C18:1 (potential CLA) content of foods [65,66]. Effigy ​ 2 portrays de novo synthesis pathways of CLA from TVA [37].

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc. Object name is 1475-2891-9-10-2.jpg

De novo synthesis of CLA from 11t-C18:1 vaccenic acid. (Adapted from Bauman et al., 1999)

Natural augmentation of CLA c9t11 and TVA within the lipid fraction of beefiness products can be achieved through diets rich in grass and lush light-green forages. While precursors can be found in both grains and lush dark-green forages, grass-fed ruminant species take been shown to produce 2 to iii times more CLA than ruminants fed in confinement on high grain diets, largely due to a more than favorable rumen pH [34,56,57,67] (meet Table ​ 2).

The impact of feeding practices becomes even more than evident in light of recent reports from Canada which suggests a shift in the predominate trans C18:1 isomer in grain-fed beef. Dugan et al (2007) reported that the major trans isomer in beef produced from a 73% barley grain diet is 10t-xviii:one (2.13% of total lipid) rather than elevent-18:1 (TVA) (0.77% of total lipid), a finding that is not especially favorable because the data that would support a negative touch on of xt-xviii:1 on LDL cholesterol and CVD [68,69].

Over the past two decades numerous studies accept shown meaning health benefits attributable to the deportment of CLA, as demonstrated past experimental animal models, including actions to reduce carcinogenesis, atherosclerosis, and onset of diabetes [70-72]. Conjugated linoleic acid has also been reported to modulate trunk composition by reducing the accumulation of adipose tissue in a variety of species including mice, rats, pigs, and now humans [73-76]. These changes in body composition occur at ultra loftier doses of CLA, dosages that can only exist attained through synthetic supplementation that may also produce ill side-effects, such as gastrointestinal upset, adverse changes to glucose/insulin metabolism and compromised liver function [77-81]. A number of excellent reviews on CLA and human wellness can exist found in the literature [61,82-84].

Optimal dietary intake remains to be established for CLA. It has been hypothesized that 95 mg CLA/24-hour interval is enough to show positive effects in the reduction of breast cancer in women utilizing epidemiological data linking increased milk consumption with reduced breast cancer[85]. Ha et al. (1989) published a much more conservative estimate stating that 3 g/day CLA is required to promote human health benefits[86]. Ritzenthaler et al. (2001) estimated CLA intakes of 620 mg/day for men and 441 mg/twenty-four hours for women are necessary for cancer prevention[87]. Plain, all these values represent rough estimates and are mainly based on extrapolated animal information. What is articulate is that we as a population do not consume plenty CLA in our diets to have a significant touch on on cancer prevention or suppression. Reports indicate that Americans consume between 150 to 200 mg/24-hour interval, Germans consumer slightly more than between 300 to 400 mg/twenty-four hours[87], and the Australians seem to be closer to the optimum concentration at 500 to 1000 mg/twenty-four hour period according to Parodi (1994) [88].

Review of pro-Vitamin A/β-carotene in grass-fed meat

Carotenoids are a family of compounds that are synthesized by college plants as natural plant pigments. Xanthophylls, carotene and lycopene are responsible for yellow, orange and red coloring, respectively. Ruminants on high provender rations pass a portion of the ingested carotenoids into the milk and body fat in a manner that has yet to be fully elucidated. Cattle produced under all-encompassing grass-based production systems mostly have carcass fat which is more yellowish than their concentrate-fed counterparts acquired by carotenoids from the lush green forages. Although yellow carcass fat is negatively regarded in many countries around the earth, information technology is also associated with a healthier fatty acid profile and a higher antioxidant content [89].

Establish species, harvest methods, and season, all take pregnant impacts on the carotenoid content of forage. In the process of making silage, haylage or hay, as much as fourscore% of the carotenoid content is destroyed [90]. Farther, significant seasonal shifts occur in carotenoid content owing to the seasonal nature of plant growth.

Carotenes (mainly β-carotene) are precursors of retinol (Vitamin A), a disquisitional fat-soluble vitamin that is important for normal vision, bone growth, reproduction, cell division, and cell differentiation [91]. Specifically, it is responsible for maintaining the surface lining of the eyes and also the lining of the respiratory, urinary, and intestinal tracts. The overall integrity of skin and mucous membranes is maintained by vitamin A, creating a bulwark to bacterial and viral infection [15,92]. In addition, vitamin A is involved in the regulation of immune part by supporting the production and office of white blood cells [12,thirteen].

The current recommended intake of vitamin A is 3,000 to 5,000 IU for men and 2,300 to 4,000 IU for women [93], respectively, which is equivalent to 900 to 1500 μg (micrograms) (Note: DRI as reported by the Institute of Medicine for not-pregnant/non-lactating adult females is 700 μg/day and males is 900 μg/day or 2,300 - 3,000 I U (assuming conversion of 3.33 IU/μg). While there is no RDA (Required Daily Allowance) for β-carotene or other pro-vitamin A carotenoids, the Constitute of Medicine suggests consuming 3 mg of β-carotene daily to maintain plasma β-carotene in the range associated with normal office and a lowered chance of chronic diseases (NIH: Role of Dietary Supplements).

The effects of grass feeding on beta-carotene content of beef was described by Descalzo et al. (2005) who found pasture-fed steers incorporated significantly higher amounts of beta-carotene into musculus tissues as compared to grain-fed animals [94]. Concentrations were 0.45 μg/g and 0.06 μg/g for beef from pasture and grain-fed cattle respectively, demonstrating a 7 fold increase in β-carotene levels for grass-fed beef over the grain-fed contemporaries. Like information has been reported previously, presumably due to the high β-carotene content of fresh grasses every bit compared to cereal grains[38,55,95-97]. (run into Tabular array ​ 3)

Table 3

Comparison of mean β-carotene vitamin content in fresh beef from grass-fed and grain-fed cattle.

β-carotene
Author, year, animal grade Grass-fed (ug/thou tissue) Grain-fed (ug/one thousand tissue)
Insani et al., 2007, Crossbred steers 0.74* 0.17*
Descalzo et al., 2005 Crossbred steers 0.45* 0.06*
Yang et al., 2002, Crossbred steers 0.16* 0.01*

* Indicates a meaning deviation (at least P < 0.05) between feeding regimens was reported within each respective report.

Review of Vitamin East/α-tocopherol in grass-fed beef

Vitamin Due east is too a fat-soluble vitamin that exists in eight dissimilar isoforms with powerful antioxidant activeness, the most agile being α-tocopherol [98]. Numerous studies have shown that cattle finished on pasture produce higher levels of α-tocopherol in the final meat product than cattle fed loftier concentrate diets[23,28,94,97,99-101] (see Tabular array ​ four).

Table four

Comparison of mean α-tocopherol vitamin content in fresh beef from grass-fed and grain-fed cattle.

α-tocopherol
Author, twelvemonth, animal class Grass-fed (ug/g tissue) Grain-fed (ug/g tissue)
De la Fuente et al., 2009, Mixed cattle four.07* 0.75*
Descalzo, et al., 2008, Crossbred steers iii.08* i.50*
Insani et al., 2007, Crossbred steers 2.1* 0.viii*
Descalzo, et al., 2005, Crosbred steers four.vi* 2.two*
Realini et al., 2004, Hereford steers 3.91* 2.92*
Yang et al., 2002, Crossbred steers 4.5* 1.eight*

* Indicates a significant difference (at to the lowest degree P < 0.05) between feeding regimens was reported within each respective study.

Antioxidants such every bit vitamin E protect cells confronting the effects of gratuitous radicals. Gratuitous radicals are potentially damaging by-products of metabolism that may contribute to the development of chronic diseases such equally cancer and cardiovascular disease.

Preliminary research shows vitamin Eastward supplementation may help forestall or delay coronary heart disease [102-105]. Vitamin East may also block the formation of nitrosamines, which are carcinogens formed in the breadbasket from nitrates consumed in the diet. It may likewise protect against the development of cancers by enhancing immune role [106]. In addition to the cancer fighting effects, there are some observational studies that found lens clarity (a diagnostic tool for cataracts) was better in patients who regularly used vitamin E [107,108]. The current recommended intake of vitamin Due east is 22 IU (natural source) or 33 IU (constructed source) for men and women [93,109], respectively, which is equivalent to xv milligrams by weight.

The concentration of natural α-tocopherol (vitamin E) found in grain-fed beef ranged betwixt 0.75 to 2.92 μg/g of musculus whereas pasture-fed beef ranges from two.i to 7.73 μg/g of tissue depending on the blazon of fodder made available to the animals (Table ​ 4). Grass finishing increases α-tocopherol levels 3-fold over grain-fed beef and places grass-fed beef well inside range of the musculus α-tocopherol levels needed to extend the shelf-life of retail beefiness (iii to 4 μg α-tocopherol/gram tissue) [110]. Vitamin E (α-tocopherol) acts post-mortem to delay oxidative deterioration of the meat; a process past which myoglobin is converted into brown metmyoglobin, producing a darkened, brown appearance to the meat. In a study where grass-fed and grain-fed beef were directly compared, the vivid cherry-red color associated with oxymyoglobin was retained longer in the retail display in the grass-fed group, even thought the grass-fed meat contains a college concentration of more than oxidizable n-three PUFA. The authors ended that the antioxidants in grass probably caused college tissue levels of vitamin E in grazed animals with benefits of lower lipid oxidation and better color retention despite the greater potential for lipid oxidation[111].

Review of antioxidant enzyme content in grass-fed beef

Glutathione (GT), is a relatively new protein identified in foods. It is a tripeptide equanimous of cysteine, glutamic acid and glycine and functions as an antioxidant primarily as a component of the enzyme arrangement containing GT oxidase and reductase. Within the prison cell, GT has the adequacy of quenching free radicals (like hydrogen peroxide), thus protecting the cell from oxidized lipids or proteins and forbid damage to DNA. GT and its associated enzymes are found in virtually all plant and beast tissue and is readily absorbed in the pocket-size intestine[112].

Although our knowledge of GT content in foods is all the same somewhat limited, dairy products, eggs, apples, beans, and rice contain very little GT (< 3.iii mg/100 g). In dissimilarity, fresh vegetables (e.thou., asparagus 28.3 mg/100 g) and freshly cooked meats, such every bit ham and beef (23.3 mg/100 thou and 17.5 mg/100 g, respectively), are loftier in GT [113].

Because GT compounds are elevated in lush green forages, grass-fed beefiness is particularly high in GT as compared to grain-fed contemporaries. Descalzo et al. (2007) reported a significant increment in GT tooth concentrations in grass-fed beef [114]. In add-on, grass-fed samples were also higher in superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (Cat) activity than beef from grain-fed animals[115]. Superoxide dismutase and catalase are coupled enzymes that work together as powerful antioxidants, SOD scavenges superoxide anions by forming hydrogen peroxide and CAT then decomposes the hydrogen peroxide to H2O and O2. Grass simply diets improve the oxidative enzyme concentration in beef, protecting the musculus lipids confronting oxidation as well as providing the beef consumer with an additional source of antioxidant compounds.

Issues related to flavor and palatability of grass-fed beef

Maintaining the more favorable lipid contour in grass-fed beef requires a loftier percentage of lush fresh forage or grass in the ration. The higher the concentration of fresh green forages, the higher the αLA precursor that will be available for CLA and n-3 synthesis [53,54]. Fresh pasture forages have 10 to 12 times more C18:iii than cereal grains [116]. Dried or cured forages, such equally hay, will have a slightly lower amount of forerunner for CLA and n-3 synthesis. Shifting diets to cereal grains will cause a meaning modify in the FA contour and antioxidant content within 30 days of transition [57].

Considering grass-finishing alters the biochemistry of the beef, aroma and flavor will also be affected. These attributes are directly linked to the chemical makeup of the last product. In a study comparing the season compounds between cooked grass-fed and grain-fed beef, the grass-fed beef contained higher concentrations of diterpenoids, derivatives of chlorophyll call phyt-1-ene and phyt-2-ene, that changed both the flavour and odour of the cooked product [117]. Others have identified a "green" odor from cooked grass-fed meat associated with hexanals derived from oleic and αLA FAs. In contrast to the "green" aroma, grain-fed beefiness was described as possessing a "soapy" olfactory property, presumably from the octanals formed from LA that is establish in loftier concentration in grains [118]. Grass-fed beef consumers can expect a unlike flavor and aroma to their steaks as they cook on the grill. Likewise, because of the lower lipid content and high concentration of PUFAs, cooking fourth dimension will exist reduced. For an exhaustive look at the effect of meat compounds on flavour, run across Calkins and Hodgen (2007) [119].

With respect to palatability, grass-fed beef has historically been less well accepted in markets where grain-fed products predominant. For case, in a study where British lambs fed grass and Spanish lambs fed milk and concentrates were assessed past British and Spanish gustatory modality panels, both found the British lamb to accept a higher olfactory property and flavor intensity. However, the British panel preferred the flavor and overall eating quality of the grass-fed lamb, the Spanish panel much preferred the Spanish fed lamb [120]. As well, the U.Southward. is well known for producing corn-fed beef, gustation panels and consumers who are more familiar with the taste of corn-fed beef seem to prefer it as well [16]. An individual ordinarily comes to adopt the foods they grew up eating, making consumer sensory panels more than of an art than science [36]. Trained gustation panels, i.east., persons specifically trained to evaluate sensory characteristics in beef, found grass-fed beef less palatable than grain-fed beef in flavor and tenderness [119,121].

Conclusion

Research spanning iii decades supports the argument that grass-fed beef (on a k/g fat basis), has a more desirable SFA lipid profile (more C18:0 cholesterol neutral SFA and less C14:0 & C16:0 cholesterol elevating SFAs) every bit compared to grain-fed beef. Grass-finished beef is also higher in total CLA (C18:two) isomers, TVA (C18:1 t11) and n-iii FAs on a g/thou fat basis. This results in a improve n-6:due north-3 ratio that is preferred by the nutritional community. Grass-fed beefiness is besides higher in precursors for Vitamin A and E and cancer fighting antioxidants such as GT and SOD activity as compared to grain-fed contemporaries.

Grass-fed beefiness tends to be lower in overall fat content, an important consideration for those consumers interested in decreasing overall fat consumption. Considering of these differences in FA content, grass-fed beef also possesses a distinct grass season and unique cooking qualities that should be considered when making the transition from grain-fed beef. To maximize the favorable lipid profile and to guarantee the elevated antioxidant content, animals should exist finished on 100% grass or pasture-based diets.

Grain-fed beef consumers may achieve like intakes of both n-iii and CLA through consumption of higher fat portions with higher overall palatability scores. A number of clinical studies have shown that today's lean beefiness, regardless of feeding strategy, can be used interchangeably with fish or skinless chicken to reduce serum cholesterol levels in hypercholesterolemic patients.

Abbreviations

c: cis; t: trans; FA: fatty acid; SFA: saturated fat acid; PUFA: polyunsaturated fatty acid; MUFA: monounsaturated fatty acid; CLA: conjugated linoleic acid; TVA: trans-vaccenic acrid; EPA: eicosapentaenoic acrid; DPA: docosapentaenoic acrid; DHA: docosahexaenoic acid; GT: glutathione; SOD: superoxide dismutase; CAT: catalase.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they accept no competing interests.

Authors' contributions

CAD was responsible for the literature review, completed virtually of the primary writing, created the manuscript and worked through the submission process; AA conducted the literature search, organized the articles according to category, completed some of the primary writing and served as editor; SPD conducted a portion of the literature review and served as editor for the manuscript; GAN conducted a portion of the literature review and served as editor for the manuscript; SL conducted a portion o the literature review and served as editor for the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to admit Grace Berryhill for her assistance with the figures, tables and editorial contributions to this manuscript.

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Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2846864/

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